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Writing · Writing: Essays and Literary Analysis

The Argumentative Essay I: Claims, Evidence and Warrants

2.1 1.4About 70 minutes
Learning goals
  • I can tell an argumentative essay apart from an opinion piece and a literary essay.
  • I can identify claims of fact, value and policy and the evidence each needs.
  • I can build an argument with the Toulmin model: claim, grounds, warrant, backing, qualifier and rebuttal.
  • I can judge whether evidence is relevant, sufficient, credible and current, and I never invent it.

Words to know

argumentative essay
A formal essay that takes a debatable position on an issue and supports it with reasoning and credible evidence, answering opposing views.
grounds
The evidence or data offered to support a claim (Toulmin's term; also called data).
warrant
The assumption or principle that connects the grounds to the claim; it explains why the evidence counts.
backing
Support for the warrant itself, for readers who might doubt it.
qualifier
A word or phrase that limits a claim to what the evidence can prove (most, usually, in most cases).
rebuttal
In Toulmin's model, the conditions under which the claim would not hold; in an essay, also your response to opposing views.
claim of policy
A claim about what should be done.

Opinion is where argument starts, not where it ends

Everyone has opinions about school: start times, phones, homework, uniforms, exams. An argumentative essay takes one of those opinions and turns it into something that can persuade a thoughtful reader who does not already agree. That takes three things an opinion does not need: a precise claim, credible evidence, and reasoning that shows why the evidence supports the claim.

Grade 11 writing tasks often include both opinion pieces and essays. This lesson and the next one teach the formal argumentative essay, which you will also need in Grade 12 and university.

Remember from Grade 9 and 10

In Grade 9 you wrote argumentative essays with a claim, counter-argument and rebuttal, and learned ethos, pathos and logos and common logical fallacies. In Grade 10 you wrote the OSSLT-style opinion essay with reasons, specific details and explanation. Grade 11 adds the Toulmin model, kinds of claims, and higher standards for evidence.

Opinion essay (OSSLT style)Literary essayArgumentative essay
SubjectA familiar issueA textA debatable issue
Main evidenceExamples, personal experienceQuotations from the textResearch: facts, data, expert testimony, examples
VoicePersonal, can use IFormal, literary present tenseFormal; I only if the teacher allows
Opposing viewsOne objection, if timeAlternative interpretationCounterargument, fairly stated and answered
CitationsNoneLine or page numbersFull citations (MLA)
Three essay forms you know. The argumentative essay asks for the most research and the most careful reasoning.

Kinds of claims

Your thesis is your main claim. Knowing what kind of claim it is tells you what evidence you will need:

  • A claim of fact says something is or is not true. It needs data, studies or expert findings.
  • A claim of value says something is good, bad, right, wrong, fair or important. It needs criteria (good by what standard?) and reasons.
  • A claim of policy says what should be done. It usually needs both: facts showing there is a problem, values showing why it matters, and a plan that is workable.

Most argumentative essay theses are claims of policy or value, supported by smaller claims of fact in the body paragraphs.

Three kinds of claimsCLAIM OF FACTIs it true? “Early starttimes reduce how much manyteens sleep.” Needs: data,studies, expert findings.CLAIM OF VALUEIs it good or right? “Aschool day should be builtaround students' needs.”Needs: criteria, reasons,examples.CLAIM OF POLICYWhat should be done?“Ontario high schoolsshould start at 9:00 a.m.or later.” Needs: fact +value + a workable plan.
A policy claim usually rests on a fact claim and a value claim. If either one is weak, the policy claim falls.

The Toulmin model

The British philosopher Stephen Toulmin described how everyday arguments work in his book The Uses of Argument (1958). His model gives names to the parts of an argument that writers often leave out:

  • Claim: what you want the reader to accept.
  • Grounds (data): the evidence.
  • Warrant: the principle that links the grounds to the claim. It answers Why does this evidence prove that?
  • Backing: support for the warrant, if readers might doubt it.
  • Qualifier: words that limit the claim (most, usually, in most cases).
  • Rebuttal: the conditions under which the claim would not hold.

The warrant is the part students most often skip. Teens need 8 to 10 hours of sleep, so schools should start later only works if the reader accepts that school schedules should fit students' sleep needs. A reader who believes students should simply go to bed earlier does not accept that warrant, and your essay must persuade them of it.

The Toulmin model: what holds an argument togetherGROUNDS (data)Guidelines: ages 14-17 need8 to 10 hours of sleep. A6:30 a.m. alarm means sleepby 10:30 p.m.QUALIFIER“in most cases”CLAIMOntario high schools should startno earlier than 9:00 a.m.WARRANT (the link)Schedules should let students getthe sleep experts recommend.so the grounds countBACKINGSleep affects health and learning;schools exist to support both.REBUTTALunless busing or othercosts make a later startimpossible
The grounds lead to the claim only because of the warrant beneath them. The qualifier keeps the claim honest, and the rebuttal admits where it could fail.

Evidence: what counts

Grade 11 arguments need evidence a skeptical reader would trust. Common types:

  • Statistics and data from reliable organizations or published studies.
  • Expert testimony: statements from people or bodies with real expertise. For example, in 2014 the American Academy of Pediatrics recommended that middle and high schools start no earlier than 8:30 a.m.
  • Official guidelines: the Canadian 24-Hour Movement Guidelines for Children and Youth (2016) recommend 8 to 10 hours of uninterrupted sleep per night for ages 14 to 17.
  • Examples and case studies: what happened when a school or board tried something.
  • Logical reasoning: for example, simple arithmetic: a student who wakes at 6:30 a.m. must fall asleep by 10:30 p.m. to get 8 hours.

Test every piece of evidence with four questions: Is it relevant (does it prove this claim)? Is it sufficient (is there enough)? Is it credible (who says so, and how do they know)? Is it current (is it recent enough for the topic)?

Never invent evidence. A made-up statistic is not a small shortcut; it is dishonest, and a careful reader will check. If you do not have a number, use a credible general statement, a real example or reasoning, and say what you would need to find out. (Finding and citing sources is taught in the sibling unit Writing: Research, Forms and Conventions.)

Worked example

Let's build one body paragraph with the Toulmin model

Write a body paragraph supporting the claim Ontario high schools should start no earlier than 9:00 a.m., making the warrant explicit.

  1. Topic sentence (sub-claim of fact, qualified): For many Ontario teenagers, an early school start makes the recommended amount of sleep almost impossible.
  2. Grounds 1 (official guideline): The Canadian 24-Hour Movement Guidelines for Children and Youth recommend 8 to 10 hours of uninterrupted sleep per night for people aged 14 to 17.
  3. Grounds 2 (reasoning): A student who must wake at 6:30 a.m. to catch an early bus would need to be asleep by 10:30 p.m. to get even the minimum, after homework, activities, family responsibilities or a part-time job.
  4. Grounds 3 (expert testimony): The American Academy of Pediatrics has recommended that high schools start no earlier than 8:30 a.m., in part so that teens can get enough sleep.
  5. Warrant, stated: A school schedule should make it realistic, not heroic, for students to follow health guidelines.
  6. Qualifier and link to thesis: While some students manage early nights, a policy should be designed for most students, not the few who can; a later start would bring the school day into line with what health experts recommend.

A paragraph with a qualified sub-claim, three kinds of grounds (all real and checkable), an explicit warrant, and a link to the thesis. A reader who disagrees now knows exactly which part to challenge, which is a sign of an honest argument.

Hands-on activity

Map an argument from your mailbox

You need: a piece of persuasive writing from your home or community: a letter to the editor or opinion column in a local newspaper, a flyer from a candidate or a charity, a school board announcement explaining a decision, or a product advertisement with text; a pen and paper.

  1. Find the main claim. Is it a claim of fact, value or policy?
  2. List the grounds offered. Label each as data, expert testimony, example or reasoning.
  3. Write the warrant the writer assumes, even if they never state it.
  4. Find (or add) a qualifier. Is the claim too absolute?
  5. Test each piece of evidence: relevant, sufficient, credible, current?
  6. Write two sentences: The strongest part of this argument is... The weakest link is...

What to look for: a stated or implied warrant that you can name in one sentence, and a specific judgment about the evidence (for example, the flyer quotes one parent, which is not sufficient evidence about a whole community).

Just for fun

English class is one of the few places where you can lose an argument by refusing to admit that the other side has a point. Toulmin even built that admission into his model and gave it a name: the rebuttal. Try that at the dinner table next time someone says you never empty the dishwasher. (In most cases is a very useful qualifier.)

Your turn

1

Label as fact, value or policy: (a) Cellphones distract students in class. (b) Teaching financial literacy is more important than teaching cursive. (c) Ontario should lower the voting age to 16.

2

What is a warrant? Identify the unstated warrant in: This restaurant has a 4.8-star rating, so we should eat there.

3

Add a qualifier to make this claim more defensible: Homework is useless.

4

Name the four tests for evidence.

5

A student writes Studies show that 87% of teens are tired every morning but cannot find where the number came from. What should they do?

6

Why does a claim of policy usually need both fact and value support?

More practice: warm-up

1

Who developed the model of claim, grounds and warrant described in this lesson?

2

What is another name for grounds?

3

What do the Canadian guidelines recommend for sleep at ages 14 to 17?

4

Give two examples of qualifiers.

5

Is personal experience the main evidence of a formal argumentative essay?

More practice: on your own

1

Build a full Toulmin argument (claim, grounds, warrant, qualifier, rebuttal) for: My city should add protected bike lanes on its main streets.

2

Find the weakest link: Our team lost three games after we got new uniforms, so the uniforms are bad luck.

3

Evaluate this evidence for a claim about Ontario teens: a 1998 survey of 40 students at one school in another country.

4

Explain why an explicit warrant makes an argument more honest.

5

Write the backing for this warrant: Schools should teach skills students will need as adults.

Challenge

1

Two people disagree about later school starts. One says, Teens need more sleep, so start later. The other says, Teens need more sleep, so they should go to bed earlier. They agree on the grounds. Explain where they actually disagree, using Toulmin's terms.

2

Rewrite this absolute claim as a qualified claim of policy and explain why the qualified version is more persuasive: All homework should be banned.

3

Explain why inventing a statistic damages an argument even if the claim is true.

Check your understanding

Quiz

1.

Ontario should require a cooking course for graduation is a claim of:

2.

In the Toulmin model, the warrant is:

3.

Which is a qualifier?

4.

Which evidence best supports a claim about how much sleep Canadian teens need?

5.

If you cannot find the source of a statistic you want to use, you should:

6.

Which test asks Is there enough evidence?

For parents and teachers

Big idea: The argumentative essay is a major Grade 11 form (expectation 2.1). The Toulmin model helps students organize reasoning (expectation 1.4) by making the hidden assumption (the warrant) visible.

How to help: argue with your teen, kindly. When they make a claim, ask What's your evidence? and then Why does that evidence prove it? That second question is the warrant. Discuss real local issues from your community paper or school board.

Common difficulties: claims that are too absolute (all, never); evidence that is a single anecdote; skipping the warrant; using old or unsourced statistics; inventing numbers to sound convincing. The facts in this lesson come from the Canadian 24-Hour Movement Guidelines for Children and Youth (2016) and a 2014 American Academy of Pediatrics policy statement; students should still look up and cite these sources themselves if they use them.