D. Composition: Expressing Ideas and Creating Texts · Writing with Purpose: Research, Essays, Media and PublishingDrafting the Argumentative Essay
D2.1 D2.4About 75 minutes
Learning goals- I can write a clear, debatable claim and support it with reasons, evidence and explanations.
- I can present the strongest counterargument fairly and write a convincing rebuttal.
- I can use ethos, pathos and logos responsibly, and avoid common logical fallacies.
- I can cite sources in an argument and end with a conclusion or call to action that suits my audience.
Words to know
argument
A text that tries to convince readers to accept a claim, using reasons and evidence.
claim
The position you argue for; in an essay, it's your thesis.
counterargument
A reasonable opposing view.
rebuttal
Your response showing why your claim still holds despite the counterargument.
ethos
An appeal based on the writer's credibility and fairness.
pathos
An appeal to the audience's emotions and values.
logos
An appeal to logic: evidence, data and reasoning.
logical fallacy
A flaw in reasoning that makes an argument seem stronger than it is.
Remember from Grade 8
In Grade 8 you wrote speeches and op-eds that call for action, using the motivated sequence, anecdotes and rhetorical devices, and you learned to tell persuasion from manipulation.
A Grade 9 argumentative essay is more formal and more evidence-based. Its goal is to convince a thoughtful reader who might disagree, so it has to deal fairly with the other side. That skill (D2.4: acknowledging other perspectives) is what separates an argument from a rant.
Our model topic
Should our school offer a free breakfast program to every student?
Invented evidence for this lesson: a class survey of 120 students found that 45 (37.5%) usually skip breakfast on school days; the school nurse says hungry students often visit her office before lunch; a local program estimates the cost at about $1.50 per student per breakfast, partly covered by donations.
An argumentative essay usually has an introduction with the claim, two or three body paragraphs with reasons, a counterargument and rebuttal paragraph (often just before the conclusion), and a conclusion that may include a call to action.
Reasons, evidence and explanation
A reason is not evidence. Breakfast helps students learn is a reason. The nurse sees hungry students before lunch is evidence. You also need the explanation (sometimes called a warrant) that connects them: If students are leaving class to see the nurse, they're missing lessons, so hunger is affecting learning time.
Kinds of evidence: statistics and data, expert testimony, examples, facts, anecdotes (short true stories), and research findings. Mix them, and cite them all.
Counterargument and rebuttal
Choose the strongest opposing view, not a weak one, and state it fairly, as its supporters would. Then rebut it by:
- Conceding a point and showing it's outweighed: It's true that the program costs money; however, ...
- Showing the evidence is weak or out of date, or
- Offering a solution to the concern.
Useful frames: Some argue that... While this concern is reasonable, ... / Critics point out that... However, ...
| Fallacy | What it does | Example |
|---|
| Ad hominem | Attacks the person, not the argument | "Of course the principal opposes it; she's out of touch." |
| Straw man | Twists the other side into a weaker version | "Opponents just want kids to go hungry." |
| False dilemma | Pretends there are only two choices | "Either we fund breakfast or we give up on student success." |
| Slippery slope | Claims one step will lead to extreme results without proof | "If we serve breakfast, next we'll have to serve every meal and buy everyone's clothes." |
| Bandwagon | Says it's right because many people do it | "Everyone is doing breakfast programs now." |
| Hasty generalization | Draws a big conclusion from too little evidence | "My two friends skip breakfast, so most students do." |
Worked exampleLet's draft the key paragraphs
Write the thesis, one body paragraph and the counterargument paragraph for the breakfast program essay.
- Thesis (claim + reasons): Our school should offer a free breakfast program to every student, because many students start the day hungry, hunger reduces learning time, and a universal program avoids singling anyone out.
- Body paragraph, point: Hunger is a real problem at our school.
- Evidence (logos), cited: In a survey of 120 Grade 9 students, 45 (37.5 percent) reported that they usually skip breakfast on school days (Class 9B Survey).
- Explanation: If more than a third of students begin the day without food, then many classes are full of students who will find it harder to concentrate by mid-morning. The school nurse confirms that hungry students often visit her office before lunch (Ahmed), which means they are also missing class time.
- Counterargument (stated fairly): Some families and staff argue that breakfast is a parent's responsibility, and that the school's limited budget should go to classroom resources.
- Rebuttal (concede + outweigh + solution): This concern is reasonable, and families remain the main providers of meals. However, the program's estimated cost of about $1.50 per breakfast can be shared with community donors, and food supports the very learning that classroom resources are meant to improve. A program open to everyone also means no student has to admit they need help.
Notice the claim is debatable, the evidence is cited, the explanation connects evidence to the reason, and the counterargument is the strongest one, stated respectfully.
Know your reader
Picture a thoughtful skeptic: someone intelligent who doesn't agree yet. Ask: What would they object to? What evidence would they trust? What tone would keep them reading? Insulting the other side might feel good, but it loses the very readers you need to convince.
Hands-on activityDinner-table debate
Pick a debatable family or community question (for example: Should our town build a new arena or improve outdoor rinks? or Should homework be banned on weekends?).
- Write your claim and two reasons.
- Ask a family member to argue the other side for two minutes while you take notes. Choose their strongest point.
- Write a counterargument and rebuttal paragraph using one frame from this lesson.
- Swap roles: now argue the side you disagree with. What did you learn?
- Check your notes for any fallacies either of you used (in a friendly way).
What to look for: the counterargument is stated so fairly that the other person would agree it's their view.
Just for funThe straw man fallacy is named after arguing with a scarecrow you built yourself. It's very easy to win that argument. It's also very easy for everyone watching to notice that the scarecrow never had a chance.
Your turn
1Is this a debatable claim? Breakfast is a meal eaten in the morning. Explain.
No. It's a fact (a definition); no one would argue against it. A claim must be something reasonable people could disagree about.
2Label each as reason or evidence: (a) A breakfast program would improve focus. (b) 45 of 120 surveyed students skip breakfast.
(a) reason; (b) evidence.
3Name the appeal: As a volunteer at the food bank for two years, I have seen how many families struggle in winter.
Ethos (the writer's experience builds credibility). It also has a touch of pathos.
4Identify the fallacy: If we let students use phones at lunch, soon they'll be on phones during exams.
5Write a fair counterargument to: Our town should build a skatepark.
Example: Some residents worry that a skatepark would bring noise to a quiet neighbourhood and that the money could fund other recreation, such as the outdoor rink.
6Write a rebuttal to your counterargument from the previous question, using a concession.
Example: It is true that skateboarding can be noisy; however, placing the park beside the arena, away from houses, would limit noise, and a skatepark serves teens year-round while the rink is open only in winter.
More practice: warm-up
Your response to a counterargument that shows why your claim still holds.
2Which appeal uses data and reasoning?
3Which fallacy attacks the person instead of the argument?
4Where does the counterargument often go in an essay?
Often in a paragraph just before the conclusion (sometimes earlier).
5True or false: you should pick the weakest opposing argument to rebut.
False. Rebut the strongest one, or readers won't be convinced.
More practice: on your own
1Write a thesis with a claim and two reasons on Should Ontario schools teach cooking in Grade 9?
Example: Ontario schools should teach cooking in Grade 9 because it builds lifelong health habits and teaches practical math and science.
2Identify and fix the fallacy: Everyone in my class thinks the dress code is unfair, so it should be removed.
Bandwagon (and possibly hasty generalization). Fix: give reasons and evidence, e.g. A survey of 150 students found 70 percent felt the dress code was enforced unevenly, and three students missed class time for dress-code meetings last month, so the policy should be reviewed. (invented figures)
3Write an explanation (warrant) linking this evidence to this reason. Reason: Outdoor rinks build community. Evidence: Forty people attended the rink's family skate night.
Example: When forty neighbours of different ages gather in one place on a winter evening, they meet people they would not otherwise talk to, which is how community connections form.
4Why might pathos alone be a weak argument? Give an example.
Feelings can be manipulated and don't prove a claim. Example: a sad photo of a hungry child stirs emotion, but without evidence about the school's actual need and a workable plan, a skeptical reader isn't convinced.
5Rewrite to remove the straw man: People against the bike lane just hate cyclists.
Example: Some residents oppose the bike lane because it would remove 20 parking spaces that local shops depend on.
Challenge
1Write a full counterargument-and-rebuttal paragraph (4 to 6 sentences) for: Our school should start at 9:30 a.m.
Example: Some parents argue that a later start would make it harder for them to get to work after dropping students off, and that after-school jobs and sports would end later. These concerns are real and deserve a plan. However, a later start could be paired with supervised early drop-off in the library, and teams already practise in the evening in many schools. Most importantly, the board's goal is learning, and students who are more rested may be better able to focus in the first period. Practical problems like drop-off can be solved; a mismatch between the schedule and students' sleep is harder to fix. Look for a fair, strong counterargument, a concession, and evidence or solutions in the rebuttal. (A real essay would cite sources for claims about sleep.)
2Explain how acknowledging other perspectives can make an argument more persuasive.
It builds ethos (the writer seems fair and informed), it answers objections the reader already has, and it shows the claim survives scrutiny. Readers who disagree are more likely to keep reading when their view is treated with respect.
3Evaluate this conclusion and improve it: In conclusion, breakfast programs are good. Thank you for reading.
It's vague, adds nothing, and ends weakly (essays don't thank readers). Improved: A universal breakfast program would make sure every student begins the day ready to learn, without anyone being singled out. With community donors willing to help, the cost is small compared with the benefit. The school council should approve a one-term pilot program this spring and measure the results. (restated claim + key reason + specific call to action)
Quiz
1. Which is a debatable claim?
2. Our survey found that 45 of 120 students skip breakfast is an example of:
3. Which is the straw man fallacy?
4. The best counterargument to include is:
5. Which appeal does As a nurse with 20 years of experience... use mainly?
6. A rebuttal that begins It is true that... however... is using:
7. Which conclusion is strongest for an argument to a school council?
Argumentative writing is central to Grades 9 to 12 English and to the OSSLT, the provincial literacy test most students write in Grade 10. You can help by debating friendly topics at home and asking your teen to argue the side they disagree with: it builds the counterargument skill.
Common difficulties: a "claim" that is really a fact; reasons with no evidence; evidence with no explanation; choosing a weak counterargument; insulting the other side; ending with "Thank you for reading." Point out fallacies you notice in ads and online comments together; teens enjoy spotting them.