Fuel Cells, Electric Vehicles and Electrochemical Technologies

From the lab bench to the highway

Everything in this unit comes together here. A fuel cell is a galvanic cell that never runs out as long as you feed it. An electric car is a few thousand lithium-ion cells wired together. Hydrogen for fuel cells can be made by electrolysis. In this lesson you will use your chemistry to judge these technologies: what they do well, what they cost, and who is affected.

Hydrogen fuel cells

In a proton-exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cell, hydrogen gas is fed to the anode and oxygen (from air) to the cathode. A platinum catalyst speeds up both half-reactions.

• Anode (oxidation): H₂ → 2H⁺ + 2e⁻ (E° = 0.00 V)
• Cathode (reduction): O₂ + 4H⁺ + 4e⁻ → 2H₂O (E° = +1.23 V)
• Overall: 2H₂ + O₂ → 2H₂O, E°cell = 1.23 − 0.00 = 1.23 V

The membrane carries H⁺ from anode to cathode; electrons travel through the external circuit. The only product at the point of use is water. Real cells deliver about 0.6 to 0.8 V each under load, so many are stacked in series.

Uses and viability (F1.1): fuel cells are used for backup power at telecommunication towers and hospitals, for remote sites, in forklifts in warehouses, and in some buses, trucks and trains. Canada has a long history in this field: Ballard Power Systems, in Burnaby, British Columbia, has developed PEM fuel cells since the 1980s.

The catch: almost all hydrogen today is grey hydrogen, made from natural gas, which releases carbon dioxide. Green hydrogen made by electrolysis of water with clean electricity (such as Ontario's largely nuclear and hydro grid) avoids this, but energy is lost at each step: electrolysis, compressing and storing the gas, and the fuel cell itself. Hydrogen also needs high-pressure tanks and a refuelling network.

Inside an electric-vehicle battery

A battery electric vehicle (BEV) stores its energy in a lithium-ion pack, typically about 50 to 100 kW·h. One cell gives only about 3.2 to 3.7 V, so cells are grouped into modules and modules into a pack of about 400 V (some newer cars use 800 V). A battery management system watches every cell's voltage and temperature, and a cooling or heating system keeps the cells in a safe range.

Cell chemistries differ mainly in the cathode:

• NMC (lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide): high energy density, longer range, but uses nickel and cobalt.
• LFP (lithium iron phosphate): lower voltage and energy density, but cheaper, longer-lasting, more thermally stable and free of cobalt and nickel. LFP is now very common in standard-range cars and in grid storage.
• Sodium-ion cells replace lithium with sodium, which is abundant and cheap. They store less energy per kilogram but cope well with cold. In February 2026, the Chinese battery maker CATL and car maker Changan unveiled a passenger car with CATL's Naxtra sodium-ion cells, which they described as the first mass-produced one, with sales planned from mid-2026.

Cold weather: in a Canadian winter, ion movement and reaction rates slow down (recall Energy Changes and Rates of Reaction), and energy is used to heat the cabin and battery, so range can drop noticeably. Heat pumps and battery pre-heating reduce the loss.

Canada and Ontario in the battery supply chain

Ontario has become a centre for battery manufacturing:

• NextStar Energy in Windsor (built as a Stellantis and LG Energy Solution joint venture; in February 2026 the partners announced that LG Energy Solution would buy Stellantis's share and become the sole owner) makes battery modules and cells for electric vehicles, and cells for energy storage. It held its grand opening in March 2026.
• PowerCo (Volkswagen's battery company) is building a large cell plant in St. Thomas. In September 2026, the start of cell production was pushed back two years, to 2029, a reminder that EV markets and investment plans change quickly.
• Recycling: Li-Cycle, founded in Ontario, developed processes to recover lithium, nickel and cobalt from used batteries. After financial difficulties, most of its business was bought by the mining company Glencore in 2025.

Critical minerals and First Nations: Northern Ontario's Ring of Fire region holds deposits of nickel, chromite and other minerals. Development requires roads through traditional territories, peatlands that store huge amounts of carbon, and watersheds. Some First Nations support road and mine development for jobs and services; others oppose it or insist on full consent and their own environmental assessments. Canada and Ontario have a legal duty to consult Indigenous peoples. Any honest assessment of EVs must include these voices.

Life-cycle view: making an EV, especially its battery, produces more greenhouse gas than making a gasoline car. Over its lifetime an EV usually comes out well ahead, and the advantage is largest where the electricity is clean, as it is in Ontario and Quebec.